Since the emergence and spread of the divine religions thousands of years ago, together with the sects that branched out from them, there have always been individuals and groups adopting rigid ideas built on rejecting the other, excluding them, and declaring them infidels. This phenomenon appeared in Islam from the period following the Rashidun Caliphate and was also evident in Christian Europe during the mid-seventeenth century, when religious institutions consolidated practices that encouraged exclusion. Such patterns laid the ground for movements and ideologies that became widespread in later stages, producing fractures and divisions within societies, and influencing the very structures of states, political systems, and social orders.
Historical accumulation
Studies define the “culture of takfir” as a fixed, stereotypical cultural construct formed and reinforced through history. It emerged from accumulated ideas and practices tied ideologically to religious fundamentalism and to the writings of prominent jurists and religious leaders. These ideas continued through their followers and disciples, leading to the emergence of entire movements and organised groups founded on declaring the “other” an infidel. In time, some developed into more radical organisations that promoted violence as a means of propagating their beliefs.
Several studies also indicate that ruling political and economic elites at different historical junctures supported such extremist and takfiri movements within frameworks of tacit alliances and mutual benefit. For example, European capitalism aligned itself with hard-line Christian currents from across denominations in order to consolidate political power. Similarly, political Islam has at various times allied itself with domestic and foreign actors to achieve parallel objectives.
The beginnings of takfir
In Islam, takfir began with the emergence of the Khawarij in the final years of the Rashidun Caliphate, during what is known as the “Fitna of Uthman.” In the subsequent Umayyad period, this group advanced extreme ideas centred on declaring those who differed from them as unbelievers. They proclaimed “grave sinners” to be disbelievers and authorised their killing, excommunicated prominent figures and those who followed or praised them, including the Caliph Uthman ibn Affan, and a large number even declared Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib an infidel. Thereafter, other takfiri currents and groups continued to appear, culminating in modern-day organisations such as the so-called “Islamic State” (ISIS).
Fears have grown over the spread and persistence of takfirist culture in Syria, particularly in the present and future context. The country has emerged from a long and brutal war in which numerous factions and currents operated, including ISIS, which controlled territory for years and still maintains sleeper cells despite its territorial defeat. Alongside this, individuals and groups across different regions continue to embrace hard-line views, shaped by years of massacres, violations, and violence during the Syrian conflict.
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A distorted reading of religion
Munir Adeeb, a Cairo-based researcher on extremist movements, international terrorism, and national security, explains: “The phenomenon of takfir is tied to those who misread religious texts, interpreting certain verses and hadith in distorted ways. They thus create a doctrinal justification for excommunicating those who differ from them in creed or sect or even using takfir against the ruler. This is the nature of takfiri currents: they ultimately seek to erase or eliminate the other.”
Adeeb told +963 that takfiri culture inevitably shapes the future of any country where it takes root. He emphasised: “The phenomenon exists naturally within Syrian society, but it grew after 2011. It has not disappeared even after the fall of Bashar al-Assad’s regime in December last year. If it continues to spread, it will pose one of the gravest threats to Syria’s future. Nothing is more dangerous to a society than takfir, which must be fought, resisted, and eradicated.”
A political instrument
Syrian political analyst Hossam Taleb, based in Damascus, rejects the idea of takfir as a religious construct, stressing its political dimensions: “There is no such thing as a culture of takfir in religion. What exists is exploitation by certain actors who use religion or sect to mobilise people against others. This is political at its core, not theological. Religion, whether Islam or Christianity, does not contain a doctrine of takfir. For instance, during the Crusades in the East, carried out in the name of Christianity, the first victims were local priests and patriarchs. Religion is simply a tool for control. Today, the same applies to many Islamist currents: the Iranian government, for example, has mobilised people at home and extended influence in Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, and Yemen under the guise of religion.”
Taleb told +963 that Syria today does host extremist and takfiri groups, but: “They do not have deep roots within all sects. They can, however, ignite sectarian strife among Syrians. These groups are not confined to one sect; they exist across communities, killing and declaring others infidels, seeking to prevent the formation of a cohesive state. If such tendencies grow, the consequences will be severe. We can draw lessons from Iraq and Lebanon, where groups like Hezbollah consolidated power. Yet today there is active resistance on all levels to prevent such ideologies from dominating Syrian society.”
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A persistent legacy
More than two thousand years since the earliest takfiri currents appeared in Islam, numerous modern groups continue to brand others as unbelievers. They declare rulers and regimes that govern by “man-made laws” rather than sharia as illegitimate, and even excommunicate state officials and public servants. Across the region, governments and civil actors have mobilised to confront and dismantle such ideologies, though takfirist culture continues to spread both within groups themselves and across competing factions.
“There is active work today to eliminate sectarian and takfiri thinking. But this requires considerable effort, especially after Syria endured a devastating fourteen-year war and the proliferation of militias, which left society fragmented. Syrians are now trying to rebuild their cohesion through legal reform, promoting tolerance, and curbing inflammatory rhetoric. Unfortunately, political language often mutates into religious incitement from all sides. To move forward, we need new curricula, inclusive laws, and discourse that nurtures coexistence.” Taleb added.
Confronting takfir
For Adeeb, overcoming takfir requires a fundamental theological shift: “To dismantle this phenomenon, religious texts must be read correctly, and moderate, tolerant discourse must be embraced. Misinterpreted verses and hadith must be revisited and explained in ways that reflect the true spirit of Islam. Takfir thrives in societies lacking tolerance, dialogue, participation, and pluralism. The greater the plurality of opinions and interpretations, the further societies move away from rigidity, fanaticism, and excommunication.”
Ultimately, building a national, unifying discourse, adopting a modern and inclusive constitution, entrenching the rule of law, restoring rights to their owners, and ensuring transitional justice are essential steps. Rejecting hate speech, sectarian incitement, and divisive rhetoric will be key to ending cycles of polarisation, partisanship, and exclusion. Only then can Syria transcend the destructive legacy of “takfir” and move towards genuine citizenship for all.
